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History: The history of Egypt is one of the richest, oldest and most varied of any country in the world, and the country's place in the history of the Middle East is as central now as it was in the fourth millennium BC. The unification of the Lower and the Upper Kingdoms in about 3180BC marks a convenient starting point for Egyptian history. This dynamic, culturally sophisticated and powerful kingdom on the banks of the Nile grew into one of the greatest civilisations of the ancient world. The pre-Hellenic period is reckoned in Kingdoms (Old, Middle and New) and subdivided into dynasties; the IVth saw the construction of such architectural masterpieces as the Great Pyramid, and the XIth and XIIth saw the zenith of Egyptian power at the start of the second millennium. Tutankhamun, whose magnificent tomb was discovered in 1922, ruled briefly during the XVIIIth Dynasty. From the XXth Dynasty onwards the power of Egypt was on the wane, and the country was overrun on several occasions by foreign powers.

The latest and most permanent of these invasions, which brought the Pharaonic period to an end, was that of Alexander the Great in 332BC. During the Hellenic and Augustan Roman period (circa 30AD), the emergence of law and literature in Alexandria allowed seven centuries of comparative peace and economic stability. From the middle of the 4th century, Egypt became part of the Eastern Empire. Then, in 642, an invading Arab army - one manifestation of the rapid Islamic conquests which followed the death of Muhammad - was welcomed by the Coptic Christians in preference to their previous Greek rulers. The Fatamids gained control of the country in the late 10th century but their power declined after a century or so. The subsequent revival of Muslim fortunes, and the reawakening of the spirit of Jihad (holy war), was largely associated with the career of Saladin, whose control of Egypt enabled him to reunite much of the Muslim world.

Under Ottoman rule, Egypt became a somewhat neglected corner of a large and increasingly moribund empire. The arrival of Napoleon in 1798 brought Egypt once more into violent contact with a European power. By 1805, however, the struggle for independence had been won, Muhammad Ali being recognised as Sultan. A generally pro-Western policy was followed by Muhammed and his successors. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, but subsequent financial problems and internal struggles led to a British occupation, maintained from 1882-1936. For the next ten years, Egypt was formally independent though severely constrained by the British. Discontent against the Government culminated in the 1952 revolution by young army officers, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. After consolidating his position as President of the new government, Nasser took the Suez Canal into public ownership with all revenues directed to the Egyptian treasury. This led to the Suez Crisis of 1956 in which a combined Anglo-French-Israeli military operation attempted to seize and depose Nasser.

The failure of the operation greatly enhanced Nasser's standing and inspired supporters throughout the Middle East who shared his vision of a united Arab world free from foreign interference. Disputes between Arab countries scuppered these plans. The defeat of Arab forces by Israel in the 1967 Six Day War deprived Egypt of the Sinai peninsula and the Gaza strip, land which was recovered only after another defeat by the Israelis in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 and the subsequent Egyptian-Israeli peace initiative which culminated in the 1979 Camp David accord. The treaty was signed on the Egyptian side by Nasser's successor, Anwar El-Sadat, and this, along with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt after the Iranian revolution, accounted for his assassination in 1981. Sadat was succeeded by his deputy, Hosni Mubarak, who pursued similar policies to his former boss. However, the rapprochement with the Arab world (especially Saudi Arabia) at the Amman Summit in 1987, instigated a new phase of diplomatic relations within the Middle East and marked the rehabilitation of the Mubarak government into the wider Arab community.

Egypt was closely involved in the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations during the early 1990s and broadly supportive 

of the Oslo agreement between the two sides. However, the effective demise of the accord drew little response from Egypt or the rest of the Arab world. Moreover, despite its deep annoyance, Egypt is disinclined to do anything to disturb relations with the USA: after Israel, Egypt is the world's largest single recipient of US aid. Of more immediate concern during the last decade has been the rise of militant Islam. Mubarak is aware that

 Egypt's deep-rooted social and economic problems render fundamentalism an attractive option for many young Egyptians. The Government's strategy has been to defuse the movement by holding controlled multi-party elections at which Islamic candidates are allowed to stand.

The pro-government National Democratic Party has won both the latest elections to the Majlis (see Government below) held in 1995 and, most recently, in October 2000. Meanwhile, the paramilitary wing of Islamic fundamentalism has been fiercely suppressed through strong action by the security forces and the use of draconian 'anti-terrorist' legislation. There has been no repeat to date of the notorious 1997 Luxor incident when 70 people, mostly foreign tourists, lost their lives.

Government: The 454-member Majlis al-Sha'ab (People's Assembly), which functions as the legislature, nominates the president; the nomination is endorsed by popular referendum. The president, who serves a 6-year term, has executive power and appoints one or more vice presidents, a prime minister and a council of ministers. The Majlis al-Sha'ab is elected for a 5-year term. There is also a 210-member advisory assembly, the Majlis ash-Shura.

Ancient Egyptian history covers a continuous period of over three thousand years. To put this in perspective - most modern countries count their histories in hundreds of years. Only modern China can come anywhere near this in terms of historical continuity.

Egyptian culture declined and disappeared nearly two thousand years ago. The last vestiges of the living culture ceased to exist in AD 391 when the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius I closed all pagan temples throughout the Roman Empire.

It was not until Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 that the wonderful artefacts of the Egyptians were seen in Europe and their ancient culture began to awaken from its long slumber.

The major attractions in Egypt are Cairo, Alexandria and the northern coast, Nile cruises, Luxor, Abu Simbel, Aswan and the Pharaonic treasures, the Sinai peninsula, and the fabulous Red Sea coastline. Egypt's combination of beach resorts and ancient heritage make it one of the most exciting holiday centres within easy reach of Europe.

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